Tardigrades are eight legged hydrophilic micrometazoan grouping within Ecdysozoa for their need to shed cuticle to grow. They are sister with Onychophora and Arthropoda into the Panarthropoda clade, bearing limbs terminating with cuticular claws. Tardigrades fore feeding apparatus consists of a cuticular piercing-sucking buccopharyngeal apparatus schematically representable by a tube ending within a sucking pharynx and associated with the piercing stylets system. This unique piercing system is the apomorphy of the phylum Tardigrada and is composed of a pair of aragonite stylets each supported and guided by cuticular structures, i.e. the supports, the furcae, and the coats. The evolutionary history of the stylets system has been only hypothesized basing on the homologies existing between the salivary glands associated with the buccopharyngeal apparatus and the pedal glands associated with the claws. Following this hypothesis, the stylet system would be derived from the internalization and subsequent modification of limbs homologous to those of extinct lobopodian, the last common ancestor of panarthropods. Due to the tardigrades minute size, support for the so-called internalization hypothesis is scarce. This thesis aims therefore to investigate further possible homologies which can support the internalization hypothesis. To retrieve them, the research work has been focused on the chemical nature, the morphofunctional aspect, and the anatomy of the head, limbs, and their cuticular annexes of several representative taxa of the phylum Tardigrada. The buccopharyngeal apparatus results to be formed by four compounds. Three of these, molecules of chitin, collagen-like, and keratin-like, compose the cuticular derived part of the buccopharyngeal apparatus and are also present in the other cuticular structures. The fourth has been confirmed to be pure aragonite by x-ray analyses on scanning electron microscope; this composes the biomineralized structure and is not present in any other structure. The identified compounds have a layered disposition, that differs among the parts composing the buccopharyngeal apparatus. Basing on the position of the layers and the functions known for the different structures, the compounds have been found to be necessary to withstand different mechanical stresses such as pressure, frequent mobilization, or deformation under high traction. Differences are also observed among the three main clades of tardigrades having functional and evolutionary implications. The dissection of furcae and claw bases shows the presence, in both structures, of a lamellar disposition of the internal collagen-like matrix. The morphological immunohistochemical analyses of nervous and muscular systems confirm instead the presence of the subesophageal ganglion. The first ventral ganglion has trice the nuclei and the nerve connections present in the subesophageal ganglion which innerve the stylet system muscles. These muscles were found to be striated in all the analysed tardigrades, revealing the homology between this structure and muscle associated with the limbs of marine tardigrades. Several additional homologies have been also found between the salivary and the pedal glands. The internalization hypothesis is therefore supported by the possible homologies collected for this thesis and a possible evolutive scenario can be inferred. During the miniaturization, Tardigrades would evolve toward the internalization of the anterior limbs, that likely became the stylet system, fusions of segment probably occurred at the level of the brain and of the first ventral ganglion, and would have lost several segments between the extant III and the IV ganglia.

I Tardigradi sono micrometazoi idrofili con otto zampe che mutano per accrescersi e sono quindi appartenenti al clade Ecdysozoa. Sono sister taxon degli Onicofori e degli Artropodi all'interno del clade Panarthropoda. Nella porzione più anteriore il sistema digerente dei Tardigradi presenta un apparato buccofaringeo perforante-succhiante costituito da un tubo, associato ad un sistema di stiletti perforanti, che termina in un faringe succhiante. La struttura perforante rappresenta l'apomorfia del phylum Tardigrada ed è composta da una coppia di stiletti di aragonite, ciascuno supportato e guidato da strutture cuticolari: i supporti, le furche e le guaine. La storia evolutiva del sistema degli stiletti è stata finora solo ipotizzata sulla base delle omologie esistenti tra le ghiandole salivari associate all'apparato buccofaringeo e le ghiandole pedali associate alle unghie. Secondo questa ipotesi, definita di internalizzazione, tale apomorfia si sarebbe evoluta dall'internalizzazione e successiva modificazione di arti omologhi a quelli anteriori dei lobopodi, metazoi estinti ancestori dei panartropodi. A causa delle dimensioni minute dei Tardigradi, tuttavia, l’ipotesi ha scarso sostegno. Pertanto, questa tesi mira a indagare la presenza di ulteriori omologie che possano sostenerla. Il lavoro di ricerca si è concentrato sulla natura chimica, sugli aspetti morfofunzionali e sull'anatomia del capo, delle zampe e delle loro appendici cuticolari in diverse specie rappresentative della diversità del phylum Tardigrada. L'apparato buccofaringeo risulta essere formato da quattro composti chimici. Tre di questi, chitina, molecole simil-collageniche e molecole simil-cheratiniche, compongono la parte dell'apparato buccofaringeo derivata dalla cuticola e sono presenti anche nelle altre strutture cuticolari dei tardigradi. Il quarto composto è stato confermato essere pura aragonite che costituisce la struttura biomineralizzata del sistema degli stiletti e non è presente altrove negli animali. I composti identificati presentano una disposizione stratificata, che differisce tra le parti che compongono l'apparato buccofaringeo. Inoltre, tenendo in considerazione anche le funzioni conosciute per le diverse strutture, le diverse combinazioni di composti hanno rivelato proprietà meccaniche differenziali volte a sostenere varie sollecitazioni come la pressione negativa, la frequente mobilizzazione o la deformazione sotto forte trazione. Sono state osservate anche differenze nella disposizione dei composti tra i principali cladi dei tardigradi con implicazioni funzionali ed evolutive. Le dissezioni effettuate sulle furche e sulla base delle unghie mostrano la presenza, in entrambe le strutture, di una disposizione lamellare della matrice interna di collagene. Le analisi morfologiche immunoistochimiche effettuate sui sistemi nervoso e muscolare mostrano che il ganglio subesofageo innerva i muscoli del sistema degli stiletti, i quali si presentano striati in tutti i tardigradi analizzati, e che il primo ganglio ventrale presenta tre volte i nuclei e le connessioni nervose presenti nel ganglio subesofageo. Pertanto, l'ipotesi di internalizzazione è maggiormente supportata dalle omologie raccolte in questa tesi. Da queste omologie si può dedurre il seguente possibile scenario evolutivo: durante la miniaturizzazione, i tardigradi si sarebbero evoluti verso l'internalizzazione delle zampe anteriori, che verosimilmente sono diventate il sistema degli stiletti, con fusioni di segmenti avvenute probabilmente a livello del cervello e del primo ganglio ventrale, oltre alla perdita di numerosi segmenti tra il ganglio III e il ganglio IV attualmente presenti.

Sull'apomorfia dei tardigradi: composizione chimica, adattamento morfofunzionale e evoluzione dei derivati cuticolari / Edoardo Massa , 2024 May 08. 36. ciclo, Anno Accademico 2022/2023.

Sull'apomorfia dei tardigradi: composizione chimica, adattamento morfofunzionale e evoluzione dei derivati cuticolari.

Massa, Edoardo
2024

Abstract

Tardigrades are eight legged hydrophilic micrometazoan grouping within Ecdysozoa for their need to shed cuticle to grow. They are sister with Onychophora and Arthropoda into the Panarthropoda clade, bearing limbs terminating with cuticular claws. Tardigrades fore feeding apparatus consists of a cuticular piercing-sucking buccopharyngeal apparatus schematically representable by a tube ending within a sucking pharynx and associated with the piercing stylets system. This unique piercing system is the apomorphy of the phylum Tardigrada and is composed of a pair of aragonite stylets each supported and guided by cuticular structures, i.e. the supports, the furcae, and the coats. The evolutionary history of the stylets system has been only hypothesized basing on the homologies existing between the salivary glands associated with the buccopharyngeal apparatus and the pedal glands associated with the claws. Following this hypothesis, the stylet system would be derived from the internalization and subsequent modification of limbs homologous to those of extinct lobopodian, the last common ancestor of panarthropods. Due to the tardigrades minute size, support for the so-called internalization hypothesis is scarce. This thesis aims therefore to investigate further possible homologies which can support the internalization hypothesis. To retrieve them, the research work has been focused on the chemical nature, the morphofunctional aspect, and the anatomy of the head, limbs, and their cuticular annexes of several representative taxa of the phylum Tardigrada. The buccopharyngeal apparatus results to be formed by four compounds. Three of these, molecules of chitin, collagen-like, and keratin-like, compose the cuticular derived part of the buccopharyngeal apparatus and are also present in the other cuticular structures. The fourth has been confirmed to be pure aragonite by x-ray analyses on scanning electron microscope; this composes the biomineralized structure and is not present in any other structure. The identified compounds have a layered disposition, that differs among the parts composing the buccopharyngeal apparatus. Basing on the position of the layers and the functions known for the different structures, the compounds have been found to be necessary to withstand different mechanical stresses such as pressure, frequent mobilization, or deformation under high traction. Differences are also observed among the three main clades of tardigrades having functional and evolutionary implications. The dissection of furcae and claw bases shows the presence, in both structures, of a lamellar disposition of the internal collagen-like matrix. The morphological immunohistochemical analyses of nervous and muscular systems confirm instead the presence of the subesophageal ganglion. The first ventral ganglion has trice the nuclei and the nerve connections present in the subesophageal ganglion which innerve the stylet system muscles. These muscles were found to be striated in all the analysed tardigrades, revealing the homology between this structure and muscle associated with the limbs of marine tardigrades. Several additional homologies have been also found between the salivary and the pedal glands. The internalization hypothesis is therefore supported by the possible homologies collected for this thesis and a possible evolutive scenario can be inferred. During the miniaturization, Tardigrades would evolve toward the internalization of the anterior limbs, that likely became the stylet system, fusions of segment probably occurred at the level of the brain and of the first ventral ganglion, and would have lost several segments between the extant III and the IV ganglia.
Inside Tardigrada’s apomorphy: composition, morphofunctional adaptation, and evolution of their cuticular-derived structures.
8-mag-2024
GUIDETTI, Roberto
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